Composite material used as a strain gauge

ABSTRACT

In one general aspect, an apparatus comprises a material including a non-layered mixture of an elastomeric polymer with a plurality of voids; and a plurality of conductive fillers disposed in the elastomeric polymer. The apparatus may produce an electrical response to deformation and, thus, function as a strain gauge. The conductive fillers may include conductive nanoparticles and/or conductive stabilizers. In another general aspect, a method of measuring compression strain includes detecting, along a first axis, an electrical response generated in response to an impact to a uniform composite material that includes conductive fillers and voids disposed throughout an elastomeric polymer, and determining a deformation of the impact based on the electrical response. The impact may be along a second axis different from the first axis.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a Non-provisional of, and claims priority to, U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/789,730, filed on Mar. 15, 2013, U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/956,394, filed on Jun. 8, 2013, U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/960,489, filed on Sep. 9, 2013, and U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/961,970, filed Oct. 28, 2013, which areall incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This application was made with support from a government grant underGrant Number CMMI-1235365 awarded by the National Science Foundation.The government may have certain rights in this application.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This description relates to a uniform composite material that exhibitpiezoelectric and/or piezoresistive properties in response todeformation and relaxation under both dynamic and quasi-static loadingconditions.

BACKGROUND

Strain, impact energy, and force sensors can provide vital informationfor many mechanics and dynamics applications. Some strain gauges arepiezoresistive, meaning that the electrical conductivity of the gaugechanges under pressure. Such gauges require a current source, forexample a battery, to operate. Other strain gauges are piezoelectric,meaning that the gauge generates electric potential, in the form of avoltage that can be measured, under strain. Existing strain gauges arelimited in terms of the magnitude of strain they can measure, primarilylimited to strain ranges of 1-2% strain. Additionally, many such gaugesare expensive, and difficult to calibrate, limiting the use of suchgauges to laboratory settings. Of additional concern is the phenomenonof drift, which is defined as change in the mathematics of thecalibration function with respect to time and or amount of use.

SUMMARY

An elastomeric composite material is provided that can be used in astrain gauge measuring severity of impact and deformation via apiezoelectric response. The composite material includes an elastomericpolymer with voids and conductive fillers dispersed throughout. Thecomposite material provides unexpected phenomena, piezoelectric responseto deformation and a decrease in electrical resistance with increasedstrain. Both of these properties are valuable in sensing applications. Aprimary differentiator of the present material is that it exhibits apredictable and repeatable electromechanical response (piezoelectricand/or piezoresistive) at mechanical strains of up to 80% or more. Somecompositions of the composite material do not suffer from drift. Becausethe composite material possesses mechanical properties similar to manycommercial foams, the composite material can be substituted or embeddedinto existing commercial products without significantly changing thefootprint of the product or the mechanical response properties of theproduct. Such a substitution or embedment adds sensing capabilities toexisting products.

In one general aspect, an apparatus includes a uniform composite mixtureof an elastomeric polymer with a plurality of voids and a plurality ofconductive fillers disposed in the elastomeric polymer. The conductivefillers may include conductive nanoparticles and/or conductivestabilizers. In another general aspect, a method of making a strainsensor includes mixing a plurality of conductive nanoparticles with anelastomeric polymer to form a uniform composite material having voids,the uniform composite material producing a voltage in response todeformation. In another aspect, a method for measuring strain includesdetecting, along a first axis, an electrical response generated inresponse to an impact to a uniform composite material that includesconductive fillers and voids disposed throughout an elastomeric polymer.The impact may be along a second axis different from the first axis. Themethod also includes determining a deformation of the impact based onthe electrical response.

The details of one or more implementations are set forth in theaccompanying drawings and the description below. Other features will beapparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A through 1C are high-level schematic diagrams of a uniformcomposite material that functions as a strain gauge, according toimplementations.

FIGS. 1D and 1E are microscopic images of a uniform composite materialthat functions as a strain gauge, according to an implementation.

FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating energy absorption values and percent airby volume for polyurethane foams mixed with varying amounts ofconductive fillers.

FIGS. 3A through 3C are schematic diagrams of a piezoelectric straingauge, according to an implementation.

FIG. 4 is a high-level block diagram that illustrates an example of asystem that uses a piezoelectric strain gauge, according to animplementation.

FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating the linear relationship between thepiezoelectric response of one formulation of the composite material andamount of strain.

FIG. 6 is a graph illustrating the constancy of the voltagecharacteristics of the piezoelectric response of one formulation of thecomposite material through repeated strain events.

FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating the correlation between piezoelectricallyinduced voltage and measured force and acceleration under impact loadingfor one implementation of the composite material.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart that illustrates an example method for making apiezoelectric strain gauge, according to an implementation.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart that illustrates an example method for making auniform composite material that functions as a strain gauge, accordingto an implementation.

FIG. 10 is a flowchart that illustrates an example method for measuringa deformation using a uniform composite material that functions as astrain gauge, according to an implementation.

FIG. 11 is a flowchart that illustrates an example method for collectingvoltage data for repeated impacts using a uniform composite materialthat functions as a strain gauge, according to an implementation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In one general aspect, an apparatus includes a uniform compositematerial including a plurality of conductive nanoparticles disposed inan elastomeric polymer foam. The uniform composite material may producea voltage in response to being deformed. The apparatus may also includeat least one probe disposed in the uniform composite material and avoltage detector coupled to the probe. The apparatus may function as astrain gauge. The apparatus can include one or more of the followingfeatures. For example, the plurality of conductive nanoparticles may bea primary conductive filler and the uniform composite material mayfurther include a secondary conductive filler. In some implementations,the elastomeric polymer foam is a polyurethane foam base. In someimplementations, the uniform composite material further includes a fibercoated with a conductive substance, such as a carbon fiber coated withnickel. In some implementations, the plurality of conductivenanoparticles include at least one of nickel nanostrands, nickel powder,silver nanowires, and gold nanowires. As another example, the apparatusmay also include a wireless controller operably coupled to the voltagedetector and a computing device operably coupled to the wirelesscontroller, the computing device configured to analyze data collected bythe voltage detector. In some implementations, the voltage correspondswith a strain rate and deformation.

In another general aspect, an apparatus includes an elastomeric polymer,a plurality of conductive nanoparticles uniformly disposed within theelastomeric polymer, and a plurality of voids uniformly disposed withinthe elastomeric polymer. The apparatus produces an electrical responsedetectable along a first axis and a along a second axis orthogonal tothe first axis when deformed. The apparatus may also include one or moreof the following features. For example, the disposition of the pluralityof conductive nanoparticles in the elastomeric polymer may define nanojunctions that produce the electrical response based on quantumtunneling. As another example, the apparatus may also include a probedisposed in the elastomeric polymer and a voltage detector coupled tothe probe. In some implementations, the plurality of conductivenanoparticles are approximately one to twenty five percent by weight ofthe apparatus. In some implementations, the plurality of voids are up to75% by volume of the apparatus and/or the plurality of voids may rangeup to 1000 μm. In some implementations the conductive nanoparticles area primary conductive filler and the apparatus also includes a secondaryconductive filler uniformly disposed within the elastomeric polymer.

In another general aspect, an apparatus includes a material including anon-layered mixture of an elastomeric polymer with a plurality of voids,a plurality of conductive nanoparticles, and a plurality of conductivestabilizers. The apparatus may include one or more of the followingfeatures, for example, the material may include a middle region havingthe conductive nanoparticles and the conductive stabilizers disposedtherein, and the middle region may be uniform along a first axis andalong a second axis orthogonal to the first axis. As another example,the material, when compressed, may cause a decrease in electricalresistance along a first axis and a decrease in electrical resistancealong a second axis orthogonal to the first axis. In someimplementations, the conductive nanoparticles are one to twenty fivepercent by weight of the material and the conductive stabilizers are oneto twenty percent by weight of the material. In some implementations,increasing an amount of the plurality of conductive stabilizers up toseven percent by weight increases energy absorption of the material.

In another general aspect, an apparatus includes a uniform compositematerial including a non-layered mixture of an elastomeric polymer witha plurality of voids and a plurality of conductive fillers disposed inthe elastomeric polymer. The apparatus may include one or more of thefollowing features. For example, in some implementations, the pluralityof conductive fillers includes a plurality of conductive nanoparticles.In some implementations the plurality of conductive fillers includetubes coated with a conductive substance and/or fibers coated with aconductive substance. The plurality of conductive fillers may include acombination of a plurality of conductively coated fibers and a pluralityof conductive nanoparticles. In some implementations, the disposition ofthe plurality of conductive fillers in the elastomeric polymer may forma continuous conductive path through the apparatus. In someimplementations, the disposition of the plurality of conductive fillersin the elastomeric polymer define nano junctions that produce anelectrical response to compression strain based on quantum tunneling. Asanother example, the apparatus may also include at least two probesdisposed in the material, a current producing device, and a resistancedetector coupled to the at least two probes. As another example, theapparatus may also include at least two probes disposed in the material,a voltage detector coupled to the at least two probes, and a memoryoperatively coupled to the voltage detector.

In another general aspect, a method of making a strain sensor includesmixing a plurality of conductive nanoparticles with an elastomericpolymer to form a uniform composite material having voids, the uniformcomposite material producing a voltage in response to deformation. Themethod can include one or more of the following features. For example,the method may also include curing the uniform composite material,operatively coupling the cured material to a voltage detector, andoperatively coupling the voltage detector to a computing device. Asanother example, the method may include including at least one probecoupled to a conductive mesh in a mold and curing the uniform compositematerial in the mold, so that the uniform composite material at leastpartially surrounds the mesh on the at least one probe. In someimplementations, the plurality of conductive nanoparticles represent oneto twenty five percent by weight of the uniform composite material. Insome implementations, the method may include mixing a plurality ofconductive stabilizers with the elastomeric polymer prior to mixing theplurality of conductive nanoparticles with the elastomeric polymer. Insome implementations, the method may include mixing a plurality ofconductive stabilizers with the elastomeric polymer, the plurality ofconductive stabilizers representing one to twenty five percent byweight. In some implementations, the method may also include mixing aplurality of fibers coated with a conductive substance with theelastomeric polymer. In some implementations, the method may includemixing a plurality of fibers coated with a conductive substance with theelastomeric polymer, the fibers having lengths in a range ofapproximately 0.1 to 1 millimeter. In some implementations, the methodmay include mixing a plurality of fibers coated with a conductivesubstance with the elastomeric polymer, the conductive substance beingup to thirty-five percent by weight of the coated fibers.

As another example, the elastomeric polymer may include a first part anda second part and the method may also include mixing a first portion ofthe conductive nanoparticles with the first part of the elastomericpolymer, mixing a second portion of the conductive nanoparticles withthe second part of the elastomeric polymer, and forming the voids as aresult of combining the first part of the elastomeric polymer with thesecond part of the elastomeric polymer. In some such implementations,the first portion may be smaller than the second portion and/orproportional to the portion of the first part to the second part. Asanother example, the method may also include sculpting the uniformcomposite material into a shape determined by a consumer apparatus. Insome implementations, the plurality of conductive nanoparticles arescreened prior to mixing and/or curing the uniform composite materialincludes casting or molding the uniform composite material. In someimplementations a shape of the uniform composite material is determinedby a consumer apparatus and/or the uniform composite material functionsas padding in a consumer apparatus, such as a helmet, an insole in ashoe, or a mattress.

As another example, the method may also include applying an impact witha known deformation to the uniform composite material, determining avoltage generated by the impact, and repeating the applying anddetermining with impacts having a different known deformation. Asanother example, the method may include cutting the uniform compositematerial in a first direction and in a second direction orthogonal tothe first direction. In some implementations, the uniform compositematerial may be sprayed or painted on a substructure and/or at leastpartially cover an artificial limb.

In another aspect, a method for measuring deformation includesdetecting, along a first axis, an electrical response generated inresponse to an impact to a uniform composite material that includesconductive fillers and voids disposed throughout an elastomeric polymer.The impact is along a second axis different from the first axis. Themethod also includes determining a deformation of the impact based onthe electrical response.

The method may include one or more of the following features. Forexample, the method may also include determining a strain rate anddeformation for the impact based on the electrical response. As anotherexample, the method may include transmitting data representing thevoltage to an external computing device and determining the deformationof the impact at the external computing device. As another example, thevoltage may be a first electrical response and the method may alsoinclude detecting, along a third axis different from the first axis andthe second axis, a second electrical response and determining a locationof the impact based on the first electrical response and the secondelectrical response.

As another example, the uniform composite material may function aspadding in a consumer apparatus and/or measure up to 80% strain withoutpermanent deformation of the material. In some implementations, theelectrical response is substantially the same after repeated detectingand determining and/or has a linear relationship with the deformation ofthe impact. In some implementations, the conductive material includesconductively coated fibers, which increase an energy absorption abilityof the uniform composite material. In some implementations, the materialmay be applied to a portion of an artificial limb, and the method mayalso include providing feedback to a user about the deformation of theimpact.

In another aspect a non-transitory computer-readable medium storesinstructions that, when executed, cause a computing device to detect avoltage generated in response to an impact to a non-layered materialthat includes an elastomeric polymer foam, conductive nanoparticles, andconductive stabilizers, to store voltage data representing the voltagein a memory, and transmit the voltage data. The non-transitorycomputer-readable medium may include one or more of the followingfeatures. For example, the non-transitory computer-readable medium mayfurther storing instructions that, when executed, cause the computingdevice to repeat the detecting and storing, generating a plurality ofvoltage data and transmit the plurality of voltage data to an externalcomputing device in response to an instruction executed at the externalcomputing device. As another example, the computer-readable medium mayinclude instructions that cause the computing device to transmit thevoltage data to an external computing device in response to aninstruction executed at the external computing device. In anotherexample, the computer-readable medium may further store instructionsthat, when executed, cause the computing device to transmit the voltagedata in response to storing the voltage data in the memory.

In another aspect, a method of making a strain sensor includes mixing aplurality of conductive fillers with an uncured elastomeric polymer,forming voids in the mixture of the conductive fillers and the uncuredelastomeric polymer, and curing the mixture with the voids to form thestrain sensor, the strain sensor producing an electrical response inresponse to compression. In some implementations, the method may alsoinclude introducing the mixture of the conductive fillers and theuncured elastomeric polymer into a mold and adjusting a modulus of thestrain sensor by controlling an amount of the mixture introduced intothe mold to match a modulus of an existing elastomeric foam in anexisting product. In some implementations, the strain sensor is used inplace of the existing elastomeric foam in the existing product. In someimplementations, the strain sensor is an original strain sensor and themethod also includes cutting a plurality of strain sensors from theoriginal strain sensor.

FIG. 1A is a high-level schematic diagram of a composite material 100that exhibits a piezoelectric response and/or a negative piezoresistiveeffect to compression and relaxation, according to one implementation.The composite material 100 also exhibits a piezoelectric response and/orpiezoresistivity in response to tensile strain. The composite material100 may include several components: a matrix 105 with one or moreconductive fillers (e.g., conductive nanoparticles 110, conductivestabilizers 115), and voids 120. The voids 120 and conductive fillersmay be uniformly dispersed throughout the matrix. The matrix 105 may beany elastomeric polymer, such as a silicone-based material, apolyurethane material, other foam-like material, etc., that retains itsshape after deformation and includes voids 120 throughout the material.In other words, the matrix 105 has elasticity, porosity, and highfailure strain, typically from 50% to 1000% strain.

In some implementations, the elastomeric polymer matrix 105 may be afoam-based product that forms voids 120, for example through a chemicalreaction, introduction of a foaming agent, through gas injection, etc.The voids 120 may give the composite material 100 relatively low weight,relatively low density, and relatively high energy absorption. In otherwords, unlike a solid material, in composite material 100 the voids 120are dispersed throughout the matrix 105. For example, the density of theelastomeric polymer used for matrix 105 may be approximately two tothree-and-a-half times greater without the voids than with the voids.For example, in some implementations the composite material 100 may havea density from 350 kg/m³ to 800 kg/m³.

The composite material 100 may also have porosity due to the voids 120.The porosity of the composite material 100 may be defined in terms ofthe volume fraction of air and the size of the voids 120. Each of theseelements may be affected by several factors, including the elastomericpolymer used as the matrix 105, the process used to form the voids 120,confinement of the composite material 100 during formation of the voidsand/or curing (e.g., size and shape of a mold and amount of compositematerial introduced into the mold), and the amount and type of theconductive fillers mixed with the elastomeric polymer, etc. For example,inclusion of conductive nanoparticles tend to decrease the size of thevoids. Voids may be open-cell (e.g., the voids may run into or connectwith each other) or closed-cell (e.g., the voids are separate from eachother) and can vary in size depending on a number of factors. In someimplementations the voids 120 may range in size up to 1000 μm.

In some implementations, the elastomeric polymer used as the matrix 105may be capable of being mixed with conductive fillers prior to curing.For example, some elastomeric polymers may be thermoset, or irreversiblycured via heat, a chemical reaction, or irradiation. Prior to curing,conductive fillers may be combined with the uncured elastomeric polymer.For example, an elastomeric polymer cured via a chemical reaction, suchas foam, may include two parts, the elastomeric polymer being formedwhen the two parts are mixed or combined. Once combined, the two partschemically react, generating the air pockets or voids characteristic offoam, and harden. Conductive fillers may be mixed with one or both partsprior to combining Some elastomeric polymers may be mixed with a foamingagent prior to curing. Such elastomeric polymers may be combined withconductive fillers prior to mixing with the foaming agent. Voids may beformed in the elastomeric polymer by gas injection, by whipping, etc.Some elastomeric polymers may be cured via heat. Thermoset elastomericpolymers may be cast, molded, sprayed or extruded after mixing andbefore they cure.

In some implementations, the conductive filler may include conductivenanoparticles 110. Conductive nanoparticles 110 are particles with atleast one dimension that measures 1000 nanometers or less and that alsomade from a material that conducts electricity. Examples of suchconductive materials include nickel, platinum, gold, silver, copper,etc. Examples of conductive nanoparticles include nanowires, powders,and nanostrands. One type of nanostrand that can be included is a nickelnanostrand (NiN). NiNs are available from Conductive Composites, LLC(Heber City, Utah) and are described by U.S. Pat. No. 7,935,415 entitled“Electrically Conductive Composite Material” and U.S. Pat. No.8,361,608, entitled “Electrically Conductive Nanocomposite Material,”which are incorporated herein by reference.

The conductive filler may also include a plurality of conductivestabilizers 115. The conductive stabilizers 115 may also be added to theuncured elastomeric polymer prior to formation of the voids. Theconductive stabilizers 115 may be any conductive material that acts as astabilizer. In one implementation, the conductive stabilizers 115 may befibers coated with a material that conducts electricity. For example,the conductive stabilizers 115 may be carbon fibers coated with purenickel. In some implementations, the fibers may be coated approximately20-40% by weight with the conductive material. The fibers may be cut toshort lengths, for example from 0.1 to 1 mm. The fibers may have adiameter of up to 10 μm (e.g., 0.2 μm, 1 μm, 5 μm, 8 μm). In someimplementations, the fibers may be hollow (e.g., tubes). In someimplementations, the fibers may be nickel-coated carbon nanotubes (CNTs)or nickel-coated carbon fibers (NCCFs), which are also available fromConductive Composites, LLC. The conductive stabilizers 115 may increasethe strength and energy absorption capabilities of the compositematerial 100. The conductive nanoparticles 110 may also increase thestrength and energy absorption capabilities of the composite material100, but typically to a lesser extent than the conductive stabilizers115. In some implementations, the conductive nanoparticles 110 may be aprimary conductive filler and the conductive stabilizers may be asecondary conductive filler.

Because the conductive fillers, for example conductive nanoparticles 110and/or the conductive stabilizers 115, are mixed with, and thus disposedthroughout, the elastomeric polymer matrix 105, the composite material100 is uniform. Put another way, the composite material 100, and thusthe strain gauge, does not have layers and its composition is generallyconsistent at a macroscopic (e.g., naked eye) level from outer surface(outer wall) to outer surface. The composite material 100 may also haveisotropic properties at a macroscopic level in that it does not exhibita preferred directionality. For example, the conductive material 100 mayexhibit piezoelectric response or piezoresistivity along the x-axis, they-axis, and the z-axis, which are illustrated in FIG. 1A. In otherwords, the composite material 100 may exhibit piezoelectric response orpiezoresistivity detectable from one outer surface of the material toanother outer surface, regardless of which outer surfaces are used. Asillustrated in FIG. 1A, the conductive nanoparticles 110 and theconductive stabilizers 115 may not be easily visible withoutmagnification, such as magnification areas 150 and 160. At a microscopiclevel, e.g., illustrated by magnification areas 150 and 160, thecomponents of the composite material 100 may be distinguishable, but maybe generally dispersed in a consistent or even manner along any axis.Thus, while not exactly the same, the general composition of areas 150and 160 are similar even at the microscopic level.

Due to the inclusion of conductive fillers, such as conductivenanoparticles 110 and/or conductive stabilizers 115, the compositematerial 100 exhibits negative piezoresistivity and a piezoelectricresponse to an impact or other deformation applied along any axis, suchas the x axis, the y axis, and the z axis. Put another way, the measuredelectrical response is consistent in any direction over a same distance.For example, if an electrical response is detected along a first axis, asame distance is any distance within a sphere where the first axis isthe diameter. Thus, when used as a strain gauge, composite material 100is not limited to measuring impacts that arrive from a predeterminedorientation with respect to the composite material 100. A material thatexhibits a piezoresistive effect changes electrical resistance whencompressed. A gauge with a negative piezoresistive effect becomes lessresistant with increased strain, meaning a current will flow more easilythrough the material when compressed than through the material in itsresting state. On the other hand, a gauge with a positive piezoresistiveeffect becomes more resistant with increased strain, meaning a currentwill not flow as easily. Traditional strain gauges measure strain byutilizing positive piezoresistivity; i.e., the electrical resistanceincreases with increased strain. The increased resistance in traditionalstrain gauges occurs due to Poisson-thinning of the strain gaugematerial. When a current producing device, such as a battery, isoperatively coupled to the material, a change in the current may bemeasured as the material undergoes deformation. A sensor with a negativepiezoresistive effect may be desirable for many applications since itwill draw little or no current when the material is not strained,potentially prolonging the service time for battery poweredapplications. The change in electrical resistance is one type ofelectrical response to impact.

On the other hand, a material that produces a piezoelectric responsegenerates electric potential, in the form of a voltage that can bemeasured. Thus, a material that produces a piezoelectric response maygenerate a voltage that can be measured without the need for an externalcurrent producing device. The voltage generated is another type ofelectrical response to impact. A material that exhibits a piezoresistiveeffect does not automatically produce a piezoelectric response and viceversa.

The composite material 100 is capable of being sculpted in any directionwithout affecting the piezoelectric response or the piezoresistiveeffect of the composite material because it is uniform between outerwalls. In other words, because the composite material 100 does notinclude layers, it may be cast and then cut or sculpted in any directionwithout affecting its ability to act as a piezoelectric orpiezoresistive sensor. Thus, for example, a large sheet or block of thematerial may be manufactured and many sensors cut from the same sheet.Moreover, the composite material 100, once cured, does not need to becharged; the piezoelectric response is inherent in the compositematerial 100 itself.

Due to the elasticity of the matrix 105, the composite material 100 isable to measure 80% strain without permanent deformation. In contrast,the most commonly used strain sensors, metal foil tensile strain gauges,can only measure small strains, up to approximately 5% strain, beinglimited by the yield point of the metallic materials used in the gauge.For example, nickel alloy foil gauges will permanently deform whenstrained over 7%, destroying the gauge. Unlike traditional metal foilstrain gauges, the composite material 100 can be easily used inbiological settings, which routinely experience strains on the order of5% to 40%. The composite material differentiates itself from recentlydeveloped High Deflection Strain Gauges (HDSGs) that are able to provideaccurate readings of strain up to 40% by measuring a piezoresistiveresponse to tensile strain. The HDSGs have been successfully applied toa variety of bio-mechanical situations, but are configured specificallyto quantify tensile strains, not compression strains. This limits theirusefulness because in many biological settings it is important toquantify compression or impact strains.

FIGS. 1D and 1E are images of an example composite material 100 takenwith an electron microscope. Image 1D illustrates a composite material100 with voids 120 of varying size. Also illustrated in FIG. 1D areexample conductive stabilizers 115 and conductive nanoparticles 110. Inthe example of FIG. 1D, the elastomeric polymer is a silicone foam withfairly large, open-celled, voids 120. Voids 120 in a silicone foam mayaverage 10 μm to 500 μm. Image 1E is a view of an example compositematerial 100 taken at higher magnification. Image 1E illustrates how theconductive nanoparticles 110 may be evenly dispersed and disposedthrough the matrix 105. Image 1E also illustrates that the size of theconductive stabilizers 115 is much larger (e.g., orders of magnitudelarger) than the conductive nanoparticles. The elastomeric polymer inthe example of FIG. 1E is a urethane foam with the same conductivefillers used in the example of FIG. 1D, but with fewer voids 120. Voidsin urethane foam may average between 80 μm and 300 μm. Thus, asillustrated by FIGS. 1D and 1E, the composite material 100 may havevarying amounts and sizes of voids depending on the formulation of thematerial, how material is mixed, formed, and/or cured.

Implementations are not limited to a composite material 100 thatincludes both conductive nanoparticles 110 and conductive stabilizers115. FIG. 1B illustrates an implementation of composite material 100that includes the elastomeric polymer matrix 105, voids 120, and theconductive nanoparticles 110 as the conductive filler without theconductive stabilizer. FIG. 1C illustrates another implementation ofcomposite material 100 that includes the elastomeric polymer matrix 105,the voids 120, and the conductive stabilizers 115 as the conductivefiller without the conductive nanoparticles. The variations of compositematerial 100 illustrated in FIGS. 1A through 1C all exhibit apiezoelectric response and have negative piezoresistivity. The amountsand types of conductive fillers used affect the amount of energyabsorption of the composite material 100, the cost of the compositematerial 100, the strength of the piezoresistive effect, the strength ofthe piezoelectric response, etc. It is recognized that the amounts andratios may be dependent on many factors, such as the function of thecomposite material as padding or protection, the desired cost, theanticipated amplitude of impacts, etc.

FIG. 2 is a graph 200 illustrating how varying portions of conductivefillers may result in variations in energy absorption among compositematerials. In the example of FIG. 2, the matrix 105 is a polyurethanefoam with various concentrations of conductive fillers disposed therein.The conductive fillers disposed in the polyurethane foam of FIG. 2 areNickel Nanostrands (NiNs) and nickel-coated carbon fibers (NCCFs). Table1 below illustrates sample compositions used to generate graph 200.

TABLE 1 Sample Weight (g) Porosity (% Air) Conductive Filler (% Weight)1 14.35 59.16 12.0 2 15.39 56.20 12.0 3 17.47 55.13 22.0 4 17.32 55.5122.0 5 17.48 55.10 17.0 6 16.92 56.54 17.0 7 17.14 53.23 12.0 8 17.7551.57 12.0 9 15.01 59.04 17.0 10 13.99 61.83 17.0

As illustrated in graph 200, mixing a higher concentration of conductivenanoparticles 110 (e.g., the NiNs) with the polyurethane foam prior tocuring may result in a higher volume fraction of air, which is onecomponent of porosity, of the composite material 100. A higherconcentration of conductive stabilizers 115 (e.g., the NCCFs), mayresult in higher energy absorption. Graph 200 illustrates how varyingamounts of conductive nanoparticles 110 and conductive stabilizers 115may affect the properties of the composite material 100. Of course, thecompositions used in Table 1 and graph 200 are provided as examples onlyand implementations are not limited to the amounts, compositions, orcomponent materials used to generate graph 200.

Differing the amount and types of conductive fillers may also affect thepiezoelectric response and the piezoresistivity of the compositematerial. For example, when the conductive fillers create a continuousconductive path (a percolating network) of conductive particles andnano-scale junctions between those particles, the composite material 100may exhibit better (e.g., more pronounced) piezoresistivity, in the formof a decrease in electrical resistance with increased strain. When theconductive fillers do not form a continuous path (e.g. for chargedissipation), the composite material 100 may exhibit better or morepronounced piezoelectric responses.

FIG. 3A is a schematic diagram of a piezoelectric strain gauge,according to an implementation. The strain gauge of FIG. 3A includes thecomposite material 100 with two probes 305 and 310 disposed in thecomposite material 100. The probes may be wires, wires with a meshscreen attached, or another form of conductive material. The probes 305and 310 may be cast in the composite material 100 prior to curing or maybe inserted or disposed into the composite material 100 after curing. Atleast a portion of the probes 305 and 310 may extend beyond anouter-wall of the composite material 100. The portion that extendsbeyond the outer-wall may be operably coupled to a voltage detector (notshown). The probes 305 and 310 may be used, when operably coupled to oneor more voltage detectors, to detect a voltage increase due to apiezoelectric response to an impact, labeled as “F” in FIG. 3A. Asillustrated in FIG. 3A, the impact F may be along a first axis A. Theimpact F may cause the composite material 100 to produce a piezoelectricresponse, in the form of a voltage increase that may be detected usingone or more of probes 305 and 310 along axis B. As illustrated in FIG.3A, the composite material 100 produces a voltage detectable along anaxis B that differs from the axis A associated with the impact F. Thus,FIG. 3A illustrates that detecting the piezoelectric response in thecomposite material 100 is independent of the direction (or axis) of theimpact. FIG. 3B further illustrates that the probes 305 and 310 need notbe along a horizontal or vertical axis. Instead, the probes may belocated anywhere along the outer-wall of composite material 100 andstill used to detect a voltage generated in response to the impact F. Ofcourse, probes may also be disposed or inserted into the interior ofcomposite material 100.

FIG. 3C is a schematic diagram of a piezoelectric strain gauge that canproduce data used to determine a location of the impact F in addition tothe deformation of the impact F. In FIG. 3C, the strain gauge includesthe composite material 100 and a plurality of probes, 305 through 340,arranged in a lattice or grid. The lattice or grid can be irregular(e.g. need not be orthogonal or evenly spaced) and may have a random,but known, arrangement. Each of the probes in the lattice or grid,(e.g., probes 305 through 340) may be used to detect a voltage generatedin response to impact F. Probes closer to the impact site, for exampleprobes 305 and 340, may measure a higher voltage than probes furtherfrom the impact site. Although the differences may be slight, they canbe used to approximate where at the outer-wall of the composite material100 the impact occurred.

While the examples of FIGS. 3A-3C discuss detection of a piezoelectricresponse, it is understood that the examples apply equally to thedetection of a piezoresistive effect of the composite material as well.In other words, the probes may detect a change in the electricalresistance of the composite material 100, rather than a generatedvoltage. Similarly, implementations are not limited to configurationswith the illustrated probe locations.

FIG. 4 is a high-level block diagram that illustrates an example of asystem 400 that uses a piezoelectric strain gauge, according to animplementation. The system may include apparatus 410. Apparatus 410 mayinclude the composite material 100 that includes an elastomeric polymermatrix, voids, and conductive fillers. The composite material 100 may becomposite material 100 described with respect to FIGS. 1A through 1E.The apparatus 410 may include a voltage detector 432 operatively coupledto the composite material 100. In some implementations, the voltagedetector 432 may be coupled to the composite material 100 via one ormore probes disposed in the composite material 100. In someimplementations the apparatus 410 may include a plurality of voltagedetectors 432, each operatively coupled to the composite material 100,for example via a plurality of probes. The voltage detector 432 may becapable of detecting voltage generated by the composite material 100when the composite material 100 experiences strain, for example due toan impact. The voltage detector 432 may also be capable of detecting adecrease in electrical resistance when the composite material 100experiences strain, for example due to an impact. The voltage detector432 may be any device that detects or uses voltage, including, forexample, a light that lights up when voltage is detected or produces avalue that can be stored. In some implementations, the voltage detector432 may also include other components (not shown), such as memory and/ora processor, (e.g., a processor formed in a substrate).

The voltage detector 432 may be operatively coupled to a memory 434and/or a transmitter 436. The memory 434 may be any type of volatile ornon-volatile memory capable of storing data. In some implementations,the voltage detector 432 may be capable of converting detected voltageinto a value that is stored in the memory 434. In some implementationsthe memory 434 may be a component of the voltage detector 432. In someimplementations, the memory 434 may store additional information withthe voltage value, such as the date and/or time the value was detected.In some implementations, with multiple voltage detectors 432, theadditional information may include an identifier of the voltage detectorthat detected the value. The memory 434 may also store other informationwith the voltage value. The voltage value and additional information, ifany, are considered voltage data. Thus, the memory 434 may store voltagedata detected after a strain event, such as an impact received by thecomposite material 100. In some implementations, the memory 434 maystore a plurality of voltage data, representing a plurality of strainevents. The memory 434 may store the plurality of voltage data until itis transmitted to a computing device, either wirelessly or via a wiredconnection.

In some implementations, the memory 434 may be operatively coupled to atransmitter 436. The transmitter 436 may be capable of transmitting datawirelessly, or transmitting data via a wired connection, such as aUniversal Serial Bus (USB) cable. In some implementations, the memory434 and the transmitter 436 may be included in a wireless controller430. The wireless controller 430 may be a wireless micro-controller, forexample the Synapse SNAP. The wireless micro-controller may enable theapparatus 410 to have a small form-factor while still being able totransmit voltage data to a computing device with capacity to analyze thedata. The small form factor of the voltage detector 432, the memory 434,and the transmitter 436 allow existing products to include the apparatus410 without significant redesign. The small form-factor also results inan apparatus 410 that is highly portable, making it useful in manybiological settings. This is a benefit over many currently availablehigh strain sensors that are inadequate when measuring strain inbiological settings because they can be cumbersome, challenging tocalibrate, and are often expensive. In some implementations, thetransmitter 436 may transmit the voltage data from the memory inresponse to a command from a computing device, such as computing device450. In some implementations, the transmitter 436 may be configured totransmit the voltage data in response to the data being stored in thememory. In some implementations, the voltage detector 432 may beoperatively coupled to the transmitter 436 and memory 434 may beoptional. In such an implementation, the transmitter 436 may transmitthe voltage data as soon as the transmitter 436 receives voltage data.

The transmitter 436 may transmit voltage data to a computing device 450.The computing device 450 may be an external computing device, separatefrom the apparatus 410. In such implementations, the computing device450 may include a receiver 456. In some implementations, the computingdevice 450 may be incorporated into the apparatus 410. The computingdevice 450 may be any type of computing device, such as a controller(e.g., a processor, a microcontroller, etc.), a tablet, a laptop, asmart phone, a server, a television with a processor, etc. The computingdevice 450 may include a compression impact analysis module 455. Thecompression impact analysis module 455 may be configured to interpretthe voltage data received from the apparatus 410. Interpreting thevoltage data may include determining a deformation for the strain event,determining a series of deformations for a series of strain events,determining a strain rate, and/or providing an analysis of thedeformation(s) and strain rates. For example, the compression impactanalysis module 455 may have access to calibration data 452 that enablesthe compression impact analysis module 455 to convert the voltage valueinto a value representing the deformation experienced by the material100 as a result of the impact. Deformation can represent compressionstrain (e.g., compression percent), tensile strain (e.g., stretchpercent), or other strain (geometrical distortion) related to stress,force, amplitude, the impulse (e.g., force applied and the amount oftime the force is applied), and/or the impact energy absorbed as aresult of an impact event. In some implementations, the compressionimpact analysis module 455 may also be able to determine strain rate ofan impact event. For example, if the composite material 100 undergoes arepeated impact having the same deformation, any changes in detectedvoltage may be due to different strain rates. For example, an impactwith a known deformation produces more voltage when the impact occurs ata faster rate. In some implementations, the compression impact analysismodule 455 may provide a user with the analysis, for example through auser interface (e.g., a report, a display, etc.).

The computing device 450 may also include a calibration data 452. Thecalibration data 452 may be used by the compression impact analysismodule 455 to analyze and interpret the voltage data. In someimplementations the calibration data 452 may be provided to thecomputing device 450. In some implementations, the computing device 450may include a module (not shown) that collects and stores thecalibration data 452. The calibration data 452 may represent the voltagevalues associated with impacts of known deformation and strain rate.Because the composition of the composite material 100, for example theamount of conductive nanoparticles and the amount of conductivestabilizers, can affect the piezoresistive and piezoelectric propertiesof the composite material 100, composite material 100 that ismanufactured outside of a controlled environment (e.g., outside of anestablished manufacturing process) may need to be calibrated after eachmanufacture. Composite material 100 that is manufactured in a controlledenvironment, however, nay not need calibration after every manufacture.

In some implementations, the apparatus 410 may be embedded, inserted,implanted, or otherwise disposed in a helmet. In such an implementation,the composite material 100 may be disposed in the helmet as padding andfunction as protective padding as well as a compression strain gauge.The apparatus 410 disposed in a helmet may transmit voltage data to anexternal computing device 450 so that impacts received by the compositematerial 100 may be analyzed in real-time. This enables coaches andmedical personnel, for example, to evaluate the risk of a concussionalmost as soon as the impact happens. The apparatus 410 in a helmet mayalso store voltage data (or a plurality of voltage data) until anexternal computing device 450 requests the data. In this manner, forexample, medical personnel could retrieve data after an accident, forexample a bicycle accident, to evaluate the seriousness of any impactsreceived. In some implementations, the apparatus 410 may be disposed inother types of protective gear, such as boxing gloves, a fencing jacket,or other equipment, such as a punching bag, etc. The apparatus 410 mayfunction in this equipment as protective padding as well while alsoproviding information on the impacts received by the protective gear orother equipment.

In some implementations, the apparatus 410 may be disposed in a shoe.For example, the apparatus 410 may be a smart insole that can analyze anindividual's gait in a natural environment outside of a controlled lab.The composite material 100 may thus function as a padded insert as wellas a compression strain gauge. The apparatus 410 may provide feedbackfor orthopedic fittings, training and caloric output, etc. In suchimplementations, the apparatus 410 may store a plurality of voltagedata, corresponding to respective impact events, that is transmitted atthe request of a user, an external computer, etc.

In some implementations, the apparatus 410 may be disposed on astructure, such as an artificial limb. The composite material 100 may beused, for example, as a skin for prosthetics to give feeling to theuser. For example, the impact event may be pressing of a prostheticfinger against a hard surface (a touch) and the apparatus 410 mayprovide feedback to the user's nerve receptors about the impact ortouch. The structure may also be a robotic appendage and the compositematerial 100 may provide data to the robot about a touch in the samemanner. In some implementations, the composite material 100 may bedisposed on a handle, such as a tennis racket, a golf club, or baseballbat and apparatus 410 can be used to analyze the grip of the user.

In some implementations, the apparatus 410 may be included in amattress. The composite material 100 may function as the mattress or amattress pad as well as a strain gauge. The apparatus may detectlocations of pressure and actuate a mechanism to reduce pressure in saidlocation. The reduction in pressure points may reduce the frequency ofbed sores without care givers interaction with patient. The apparatus410 may thus enable the system to analyze motion movement as the usersleeps. The examples provided herein are not exhaustive and not intendedto be limiting.

While FIG. 4 has been discussed with regard to compression strains, itis understood that the composite material 100 also exhibitspiezoresistivity and piezoelectric response to tensile strains or otherdeformations. Thus, apparatus 410 may easily be adapted to detect andmeasure deformation, for example, in a bushing configuration whereplates are pulled apart for part of a cycle. Accordingly, apparatus 410is not limited to detecting and measuring compression strains.

FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating the linear relationship between thepiezoelectric response of an example of composite material 100 anddeformation, or amount of strain. As the composite material is strainedit generates a piezoelectric response that results in a voltagedifference across a voltage detector. The response can be directlycorrelated to the amount of deformation the material experienced and islinear with respect to the deformation, as illustrated in the top lineof FIG. 5. When the strain is released, the material generates acorresponding decrease in voltage response. These properties of thematerial allow calibration so that later strains can be measured withaccuracy. It is understood that not all implementations of compositematerial 100 may exhibit a linear response. Some implementations mayexhibit a non-linear response, but with proper calibration the responsecan be correlated to the amount of deformation the material experienced.In other words, the piezoelectric response varies with deformation in amanner than can be calibrated to determine the deformation of laterimpacts.

FIG. 6 is a graph illustrating the constancy (e.g. absence of drift) ofthe piezoelectric response of some implementations of the compositematerial through repeated impact events. FIG. 6 demonstrates that thepiezoelectric response of some implementations of the composite material100 is highly repeatable and does not drift with repeated cycles. Manypiezoelectric sensors, including the HDSGs, suffer from drift, whichaffects the ability to accurately measure strain over extended periodsof time. Drift occurs when the piezoelectric response orpiezoresistivity of the gauge degrades over time with repeated strainevents. For example, a sensor that suffers from drift may produce 1 ampin response to an impact with a force of 1 newton a first time, 0.9 ampsin response to the 1 newton impact a second time, 0.8 amps in responseto the 1 newton impact a third time, etc. Thus, the sensor fails toaccurately measure the deformation of the impact over repeated cycleswithout recalibration. Unlike many piezoelectric and piezoresistivesensors, including HDSGs, FIG. 6 illustrates that the composite material100 produces a consistent voltage in response to repeated strain events,which is ideal for many biological settings.

FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating the results from a drop test outputperformed on one implementation of the composite material. In theexample of FIG. 7 a matrix was a polyurethane foam with approximately 3%conductive stabilizers and 10% conductive nanoparticles. A slidinghammer was instrumented with an accelerometer which would impact a pieceof the composite material mounted atop a load cell. FIG. 7 shows thatthis sample of the composite material gave a consistent voltage responseto each impact as characterized by the force and acceleration measuredsimultaneously. It is also shown that the example composite materialexhibits a second response as the hammer is removed from the foam.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart that illustrates an example method 800 for makinga piezoelectric strain gauge, according to an implementation. The method800 produces a composite material and component parts that can be usedas a piezoelectric or piezoresistive sensor for measuring compressionstrains at least up to 80% strain. At 805, at least one conductivefiller is mixed with an uncured elastomeric polymer. As indicated above,the conductive filler may include conductive nanoparticles and/orconductive stabilizers. The ratio and amounts of conductive filler mixedwith the uncured elastomeric polymer depends on the desired propertiesof the gauge. For example, if additional energy absorption or a stifferfoam is desired, more conductive stabilizers may be mixed with theuncured elastomeric polymer. If increased porosity is desired, e.g., fora material with more voids, although of smaller size, more conductivenanoparticles may be mixed with the elastomeric polymer because theincreased nanoparticles increase the nucleation points, which increasesthe number of voids but may end up reducing the size of the voids. Asdiscussed herein, the amount of conductive nanoparticles can affect theporosity of the material, the formation of nano-junctions, the formationof a conductive path, etc., which can affect the piezoelectric andpiezoresistive effects.

At 810 voids are formed in the mixture. Voids may be formed as a resultof a chemical reaction when two component parts of the elastomericpolymer are mixed. Voids may also be formed as a result of dispersion ofa gas or introduction of a foaming agent. The voids may be formed aspart of the curing process of the elastomeric polymer. The amount(volume fraction of air) and size of the voids determine the porosity ofthe material. The porosity of the material can affect the piezoelectricand piezoresistive responses observed in the composite material. Forexample, composite material with a polyurethane foam matrix that hasapproximately 40% to 80% volume fraction of air was found to produceacceptable piezoelectric responses, but above 80% volume fraction of airthe piezoelectric response degraded. Similarly, suitable piezoelectricresponse has been observed in composite materials having voids rangingfrom 10 μm to 300 μm. The optimal porosity of the composite materialused in a piezoelectric gauge may also be dependent on the type ofmatrix used and the purpose of the strain gauge. Moreover, by keepingthe volume constant (e.g., by using a mold) while increasing the amountof material (e.g., by introducing more of the elastomeric polymer mixedwith the conductive fillers into the mold), the size of the voids in theresulting composite material is decreased, causing a correspondingincrease in Young's modulus. The modulus of the composite material can,therefore, be matched to existing foams, so that the composite materialmay be embedded into common objects, functioning as a strain gauge andgathering data in a normal physiological setting.

At 815 the mixture is formed, for example by casting, painting,spraying, extruding, or molding, and cured. Once formed and cured, themixture is a composite material capable of acting as a piezoelectricsensor without further processing. In other words, the cured compositematerial does not need to be charged or have other materials or layersadded to act as a sensor. Thus, the composite material is non-additive.While additional components, such as probes and a voltage detector, maybe needed to detect the piezoelectric response, the composite materialproduces the response without additions. It is understood that in someimplementations, steps 815 and 810 may be combined. In other words, thevoids may develop while the mixture is formed and/or cured or as aresult of the curing process.

At 820 the cured composite material, or the piezoelectric strain sensor,may be operatively coupled to a voltage detector. For example, thevoltage detector may be coupled via one or more probes disposed in thematerial. The probes may be cast with the composite material or may beinserted after the composite material has cured. If the voltage detectordoes not include a memory, the voltage detector may also be operablycoupled to a memory at 825. The memory may store voltage data thatrepresents a voltage detected in response to an impact or otherstrain-inducing event. The voltage data may include a voltage valuerepresenting a voltage detected by the voltage detector and additionalinformation, such as a date/time, a voltage detector identifier, etc.The voltage data may be transmitted to a computing device for analysis.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart that illustrates an example method 900 for makinga composite material that functions as a strain sensor, according to animplementation. Process 900 may be an example of mixing conductivefillers with the uncured elastomeric polymer as part of step 805 of FIG.800. In the example of process 900, the conductive fillers include bothconductive stabilizers and conductive nanoparticles and the uncuredelastomeric polymer includes an A part and a B part that are keptseparate until formation and curing. Examples of such an elastomericpolymer include, but are not limited to, silicone foams, polyurethanefoams, latex foam, vinyl nitrile, etc. At 905 the desired amounts ofparts A and B of the uncured elastomeric polymer are measured. At 910the desired amount of conductive stabilizers, e.g., nickel-coated carbonfibers, are measured. In one implementation the amount of conductivestabilizers is approximately 1 to 7% of the weight of the elastomericpolymer. At 915 a portion of the measured conductive stabilizers areadded to part A of the elastomeric polymer. The portion mixed with partA may be smaller than the portion mixed with part B of the elastomericpolymer. In some implementations, approximately 40% of the measuredamount of the conductive stabilizers are added to part A and 60% areadded to part B. In some implementations, the portion mixed with part Amay be related to a ratio by weight of part A and part B. In someimplementations, mixing may be accomplished, for example by stirringand/or via a specialized mixer, such as a centrifugal mixer. Forexample, the conductive stabilizers may be mixed with part A using aglass rod and then placed in a centrifugal mixer and mixed to ensurethat the conductive stabilizer is thoroughly and evenly dispersed inpart A. Mixing times may be dependent upon the elastomeric polymer used.For example, a silicone foam may be mixed for 10 seconds at 2000 rpm toallow time to introduce the foam into the mold, while urethane foam maybe mixed for 20 seconds at 2000 rpm. The remaining portion of theconductive stabilizer may be mixed with part B of the uncuredelastomeric polymer at step 920. The remaining portion may be mixed inthe same manner as described with regard to step 915.

At step 925, the desired amount of conductive nanoparticles aremeasured. In some implementations, the weight of the measured conductivenanoparticles may be approximately 5 to 20% of the weight of theelastomeric polymer. In some implementations, the conductivenanoparticles may be screened prior to measuring. For example, theconductive nanoparticles may be pushed through or scraped over a mesh sothat the measured conductive nanoparticles do not include large clumps.At 930, a portion of the measured conductive nanoparticles are mixedwith part A of the uncured elastomeric polymer and at 935 the remainingportion is mixed with part B of the uncured elastomeric polymer. In someimplementations, the portion of conductive nanoparticles mixed with partA is less than the portion mixed with part B, for example 40%. As withthe conductive stabilizers, the conductive nanoparticles may be mixedusing a centrifugal mixer to completely and evenly disperse thenanoparticles throughout the uncured elastomeric polymer.

At 940 part A and part B of the uncured elastomeric polymer may be mixedtogether. The parts may be mixed by stirring, by shaking, or by aspecialized mixer, such as a centrifugal mixer. In some implementations,the parts may be mixed in the centrifugal mixer for 10 to 20 seconds at2000 rpm, depending on the elastomeric polymer used. Once mixed, thecomposite material may be formed. For example, the composite materialmay be cast, molded, sprayed, painted, etc., and cured. For example, theelastomeric polymer may be poured into a heated mold for formation ofthe voids and curing. For example, in a two-part polymer, after the twoparts are mixed together and poured into a mold, the elastomeric polymermay rise, due to formation of voids, and harden or cure in a heatedmold. A heated mold may help the foam rise and may decrease the curetime, but the mold does not necessarily need to be heated. It isunderstood that the method 900 is an example method and that steps maybe modified. For example, implementations may include mixing theconductive stabilizer with one part of the elastomeric polymer and theconductive nanoparticles with another part of the elastomeric polymer.Implementations may also include other variations.

FIG. 10 is a flowchart that illustrates an example method 1000 formeasuring a deformation using a composite material that functions as astrain gauge, according to an implementation. The method 1000 may beperformed by a system that uses the composite material described aboveas a strain sensor. At 1005, a voltage detector may detect a voltagegenerated in response to an impact to a non-layered material thatincludes an elastomeric polymer with a plurality of voids and conductivefillers. The conductive fillers may include conductive nanoparticles,conductive stabilizers, or a combination of the two, as described above.The non-layered material is a composite material that is capable ofgenerating a piezoelectric response upon curing, without charging,layering, or other added components. At 1010, the apparatus may transmitdata representing the voltage to a computing device. The computingdevice may be an external computing device and the voltage data may betransmitted wirelessly. In some implementations, the computing devicemay be a microcontroller. In some implementations, the transmission maybe wired, for example via a Universal Serial Bus connection between anapparatus that includes the strain sensor and a computing device. Insome implementations, the data may be transmitted in response todetecting the voltage. In other words, the data may be transmitted inreal-time. At 1015, the computing device may determine a deformation forthe voltage. In some implementations, the deformation may represent anamount of energy absorbed. In some implementations, the deformation mayrepresent an amplitude, an impulse, an impact energy, a strain, etc. Thecomputing device may provide information about the deformation to auser.

FIG. 11 is a flowchart that illustrates an example method 1100 forcollecting voltage data for repeated impacts using a composite materialthat exhibits a piezoelectric response, according to an implementation.The method 1100 may be performed by a system that includes the compositematerial as a strain sensor. At 1105, a voltage detector may detect avoltage generated in response to an impact to a non-layered materialthat includes an elastomeric polymer with a plurality of voids andconductive fillers. The conductive fillers may include conductivenanoparticles, conductive stabilizers, or a combination of the two, asdescribed above. The non-layered material is a composite material thatis capable of generating a piezoelectric response upon curing, withoutcharging, layering, or other added components. The system may storevoltage data representing the voltage in a memory at 1110. The data mayinclude a value representing the voltage, a date and/or time the voltagewas detected, an identifier of the voltage detector or a probe used todetect the voltage, etc.

The system may then determine whether to send the data at 1115. In someimplementations, the system may send the data as soon as it is stored.In some implementations, the system may wait for a request for the data,for example a request initiated by a user or an external computingdevice. If the system determines the data is not to be sent (1115, No),the system may continue to monitor for impact events and store voltagedata for detected events. If the system determines the data is to besent (1115, Yes), the system may transmit the plurality of voltage datato an external computing device at 1120. In some implementations, oncedata is transmitted the data may be deleted from the memory. At thecomputing device, the system may analyze the plurality of voltage datato determine a deformation and, optionally, a strain rate, for theimpact events represented by the data. The analysis may includegenerating graphs, charts, or reports provided to a user, for examplevia a display or a printer. It is understood that the data may be usedin a variety of ways, depending on the type product the strain gauge isused in. For example, the data may be used in gait analysis, orthoticcustomization, injury assessment, grip analysis, touch feedback, motionmovement analysis, early-warning crash detection (e.g., a car bumper),weight sensitive switching (e.g., a weight sensitive material forenabling or disabling automotive airbags), The sensor can also beembedded into the cars dash and door pads to enable impact detection forfirst responders assessment of accidents.

Referring back to FIG. 4, in some implementations, the system 400 andcomputing device 450 can be, for example, a wired device and/or awireless device (e.g., Wi-Fi, ZigBee or bluetooth enabled device) andcan be, for example, a computing entity (e.g., a personal computingdevice), a server device (e.g., a web server), a mobile phone, atouchscreen device, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a laptop, atelevision including, or associated with, one or more processors, atablet device, an e-reader, and/or so forth. The computing device 450can be configured to operate based on one or more platforms (e.g., oneor more similar or different platforms) that can include one or moretypes of hardware, software, firmware, operating systems, runtimelibraries, and/or so forth.

The components (e.g., modules, processors) of the computing device 450can be configured to operate based on one or more platforms (e.g., oneor more similar or different platforms) that can include one or moretypes of hardware, software, firmware, operating systems, runtimelibraries, and/or so forth. In some implementations, the components ofthe computing device 450 can be configured to operate within a clusterof devices (e.g., a server farm). In such an implementation, thefunctionality and processing of the components of the computing device450 can be distributed to several devices of the cluster of devices.

The components of the computing device 450 (e.g., the compression impactanalysis module 455 of the computing device 450) can be, or can include,any type of hardware and/or software configured to analyze voltage data.For example, in some implementations, one or more portions of thecompression impact analysis module 455 in FIG. 4 can be, or can include,a hardware-based module (e.g., a digital signal processor (DSP), a fieldprogrammable gate array (FPGA), a memory), a firmware module, and/or asoftware-based module (e.g., a module of computer code, a set ofcomputer-readable instructions that can be executed at a computer). Forexample, in some implementations, one or more portions of the componentsof the computing device 450 can be, or can include, a software moduleconfigured for execution by at least one processor (not shown). In someimplementations, the functionality of the components can be included indifferent modules and/or different components than those shown in FIG.4.

In some embodiments, one or more of the components of the computingdevice 450 can be, or can include, processors configured to processinstructions stored in a memory. For example, the compression impactanalysis module 455 (and/or portions thereof) can be, or can include, acombination of a processor and a memory configured to executeinstructions related to a process to implement one or more functions.

Although not shown, in some implementations, the components of thecomputing device 450, such as the compression impact analysis module 455of the computing device 450, can be configured to operate within, forexample, a data center, a cloud computing environment, a computersystem, one or more server/host devices, and/or so forth. In someimplementations, the components of the computing device 450 can beconfigured to operate within a network. Thus, the components of thecomputing device 450 or apparatus 410 can be configured to functionwithin various types of network environments that can include one ormore devices and/or one or more server devices. For example, the networkcan be, or can include, a local area network (LAN), a wide area network(WAN), and/or so forth. The network can be, or can include, a wirelessnetwork and/or wireless network implemented using, for example, gatewaydevices, bridges, switches, and/or so forth. The network can include oneor more segments and/or can have portions based on various protocolssuch as Internet Protocol (IP) and/or a proprietary protocol. Thenetwork can include at least a portion of the Internet.

In some implementations, the memory 434 and/or the memory 458 can be anytype of memory such as a random-access memory, a disk drive memory,flash memory, and/or so forth. In some implementations, the memory 434and/or the memory 458 can be implemented as more than one memorycomponent (e.g., more than one RAM component or disk drive memory)associated with the components of the apparatus 410 or the computingdevice 450. In some embodiments, the calibration data 452 or the memory458 (or a portion thereof) can be a remote database, a local database, adistributed database, a relational database, a hierarchical database,and/or so forth. As shown in FIG. 4, at least some portions of thecalibration data 452 and/or transmitted voltage data can be stored inthe memory 458 (e.g., local memory, remote memory) of the computingdevice 450. In some embodiments, the memory 458 can be, or can include,a memory shared by multiple devices such as computing device 450. Insome implementations, the memory 458 can be associated with a serverdevice (not shown) within a network and configured to serve thecomponents of the computing device 450.

Implementations of the various techniques described herein may beimplemented in digital electronic circuitry, or in computer hardware,firmware, software, or in combinations of them. Implementations mayimplemented as a computer program product, i.e., a computer programtangibly embodied in an information carrier, e.g., in a machine-readablestorage device (computer-readable medium) or in a propagated signal, forprocessing by, or to control the operation of, data processingapparatus, e.g., a programmable processor, a computer, or multiplecomputers. A computer program, such as the computer program(s) describedabove, can be written in any form of programming language, includingcompiled or interpreted languages, and can be deployed in any form,including as a stand-alone program or as a module, component,subroutine, or other unit suitable for use in a computing environment. Acomputer program can be deployed to be processed on one computer or onmultiple computers at one site or distributed across multiple sites andinterconnected by a communication network.

Many of the method steps may be performed by one or more programmableprocessors executing a computer program to perform functions byoperating on input data and generating output. Method steps also may beperformed by, and an apparatus may be implemented as, special purposelogic circuitry, e.g., an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or anASIC (application-specific integrated circuit).

Processors suitable for the processing of a computer program include, byway of example, both general and special purpose microprocessors, andany one or more processors formed in a substrate of any kind of digitalcomputer. Generally, a processor will receive instructions and data froma read-only memory or a random access memory or both. Elements of acomputer may include at least one processor for executing instructionsand one or more memory devices for storing instructions and data.Generally, a computer also may include, or be operatively coupled toreceive data from or transfer data to, or both, one or more mass storagedevices for storing data, e.g., magnetic, magneto-optical disks, oroptical disks. Information carriers suitable for embodying computerprogram instructions and data include all forms of non-volatile memory,including by way of example semiconductor memory devices, e.g., EPROM,EEPROM, and flash memory devices; magnetic disks, e.g., internal harddisks or removable disks; magneto-optical disks; and CD-ROM and DVD-ROMdisks. The processor and the memory may be supplemented by, orincorporated in special purpose logic circuitry.

To provide for interaction with a user, implementations may beimplemented on a computer having a display device, e.g., a cathode raytube (CRT), liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor, or a touch screen fordisplaying information to the user and a keyboard and a pointing device,e.g., a mouse or a trackball, by which the user can provide input to thecomputer. Other kinds of devices can be used to provide for interactionwith a user as well; for example, feedback provided to the user can beany form of sensory feedback, e.g., visual feedback, auditory feedback,or tactile feedback; and input from the user can be received in anyform, including acoustic, speech, or tactile input.

Implementations may be implemented in a computing system that includes aback-end component, e.g., as a data server, or that includes amiddleware component, e.g., an application server, or that includes afront-end component, e.g., a client computer having a graphical userinterface or a Web browser through which a user can interact with animplementation, or any combination of such back-end, middleware, orfront-end components. Components may be interconnected by any form ormedium of digital data communication, e.g., a communication network.Examples of communication networks include a local area network (LAN)and a wide area network (WAN), e.g., the Internet.

While certain features of the described implementations have beenillustrated as described herein, many modifications, substitutions,changes and equivalents will now occur to those skilled in the art. Itis, therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended tocover all such modifications and changes as fall within the scope of theembodiments. It should be understood that they have been presented byway of example only, not limitation, and various changes in form anddetails may be made. Any portion of the apparatus and/or methodsdescribed herein may be combined in any combination, except mutuallyexclusive combinations. The embodiments described herein can includevarious combinations and/or sub-combinations of the functions,components and/or features of the different embodiments described.

What is claimed is:
 1. An apparatus, comprising: an elastomeric polymer;a plurality of conductive nanoparticles uniformly disposed within theelastomeric polymer; and a plurality of voids uniformly disposed withinthe elastomeric polymer, the apparatus producing an electrical responsedetectable along a first axis and a along a second axis orthogonal tothe first axis when deformed.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein thedisposition of the plurality of conductive nanoparticles in theelastomeric polymer define nano junctions that produce the electricalresponse based on quantum tunneling.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1,further comprising: a probe disposed in the elastomeric polymer; and avoltage detector coupled to the probe.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1,wherein the conductive nanoparticles are a primary conductive filler,the apparatus further comprising: a secondary conductive filleruniformly disposed within the elastomeric polymer.
 5. An apparatus,comprising: a material including a non-layered mixture of: anelastomeric polymer with a plurality of voids; a plurality of conductivenanoparticles; and a plurality of conductive stabilizers.
 6. Theapparatus of claim 5, wherein the material includes a middle regionhaving the conductive nanoparticles and the conductive stabilizersdisposed therein.
 7. The apparatus of claim 6, wherein the middle regionis uniform along a first axis and along a second axis orthogonal to thefirst axis.
 8. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein the material, whencompressed, causes a decrease in electrical resistance along a firstaxis and a decrease in electrical resistance along a second axisorthogonal to the first axis.
 9. An apparatus, comprising: a materialincluding a non-layered mixture of: an elastomeric polymer with aplurality of voids; and a plurality of conductive fillers disposed inthe elastomeric polymer.
 10. The apparatus of claim 9, the plurality ofconductive fillers including a plurality of conductive nanoparticles.11. The apparatus of claim 9, the plurality of conductive fillersincluding fibers coated with a conductive substance.
 12. The apparatusof claim 9, the plurality of conductive fillers including a combinationof a plurality of conductively coated fibers and a plurality ofconductive nanoparticles.
 13. The apparatus of claim 9 furthercomprising: at least two probes disposed in the material; a currentproducing device; and a resistance detector coupled to the at least twoprobes.
 14. The apparatus of claim 9 further comprising: at least twoprobes disposed in the material; a voltage detector coupled to the atleast two probes; and a memory operatively coupled to the voltagedetector.
 15. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the disposition of theplurality of conductive fillers in the elastomeric polymer define nanojunctions that produce an electrical response to compression strainbased on quantum tunneling.
 16. A method for measuring compressionstrain comprising: detecting, along a first axis, an electrical responsegenerated in response to an impact to a uniform composite material thatincludes conductive fillers and voids disposed throughout an elastomericpolymer, the impact being along a second axis different from the firstaxis; and determining a deformation of the impact based on theelectrical response.
 17. The method of claim 16, further comprisingdetermining a strain rate and deformation for the impact based on theelectrical response.
 18. The method of claim 16, wherein the conductivematerial includes conductively coated fibers.
 19. The method of claim16, where the uniform composite material functions as padding in aconsumer apparatus.
 20. The method of claim 16, further comprising:transmitting data representing the voltage to an external computingdevice; and determining the deformation of the impact at the externalcomputing device.
 21. The method of claim 16, wherein the material isapplied to a portion of an artificial limb, and the method furthercomprises providing feedback to a user about the deformation of theimpact.
 22. The method of claim 16, wherein the uniform compositematerial measures up to 60% strain without permanent deformation of thematerial.